Socialism of the 21st century (; ; ) is an interpretation of socialist principles first advocated by German sociologist and political analyst Heinz Dieterich and taken up by a number of Latin American leaders. Dieterich argued in 1996 that both free-market industrial capitalism and 20th-century socialism have failed to solve urgent problems of humanity such as poverty, hunger, exploitation of labour, economic oppression, sexism, racism, the destruction of natural resources and the absence of true democracy.[Heinz Dieterich: Der Sozialismus des 21. Jahrhunderts – Wirtschaft, Gesellschaft und Demokratie nach dem globalen Kapitalismus, Einleitung]
Socialism of the 21st Century – Economy, Society, and Democracy in the era of global Capitalism, Introduction. Socialism of the 21st century has democratic socialist elements, but it also resembles Marxist revisionism.
Leaders who have advocated for this form of socialism include Hugo Chávez of Venezuela, Rafael Correa of Ecuador, Evo Morales of Bolivia, Néstor Kirchner and Cristina Fernández de Kirchner of Argentina,[ "Hay que emprender, como ya han hecho otros países, el camino del socialismo del", 14 de abril de 2009.] and United Left in Spain[ "Hemos decidido que queremos construir el socialismo del y, para ello, se necesita mucha movilización", Cayo Lara, coordinador general de IU, 14 de abril de 2009.] and the Communist Party of the Russian Federation and Just Russia.
Historical foundations
After a series of structural adjustment loans and debt restructuring led by the International Monetary Fund in the late 20th century, Latin America experienced a significant increase in inequality. Between 1990 and 1999, the
Gini coefficient, a measure of inequality in the income or wealth distribution, rose in almost every Latin American country.
Volatile prices and inflation led to dissatisfaction. In 2000, only 37% of Latin Americans were satisfied with their democracies (20 points less than Europeans and 10 points less than sub-Saharan Africans).
In this context, a wave of left-leaning socio-political movements, called the
Pink tide, on behalf of indigenous rights,
, labor rights, women's rights, land rights and educational reform emerged to eventually provide momentum for the election of socialist leaders.
Socialism of the 21st century draws on indigenous traditions of communal governance and previous Latin America socialist and communist movements, including those of Salvador Allende, Fidel Castro, Che Guevara and the Sandinista National Liberation Front.
Theoretical tenets
According to Dieterich, this form of socialism is revolutionary in that the existing society is altered to be qualitatively different, but the process itself should be gradual and non-violent, instead utilising democracy to secure power, education, scientific knowledge about society and international cooperation. Dieterich suggests the construction of four basic institutions within the new reality of
post-capitalist civilisation:
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Equivalent economy based on the Marxian economic labor theory of value and democratically determined by those who directly create value instead of principles of market economies.
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Majority democracy which makes use of to decide upon important societal questions.
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Basic state democracy with a suitable protection of minority rights.
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Citizens who are responsible, rational and self-determined.
Post-neoliberalism
Post-neoliberalism, also known as
anti-neoliberalism, is a set of ideals characterized by its rejection of
neoliberalism and the economic policies embodied by the Washington Consensus.
While there is scholarly debate about the defining features of post-neoliberalism, it is often associated with economic progressivism as a response to neoliberalism's perceived excesses or failures, ranging from
nationalization and wealth redistribution to embracing
protectionism and
laborism; it can also refer to left-wing politics more generally.
The movement has had particular influence in Latin America, where the pink tide brought about a substantial shift towards left-wing governments in the 2000s.
History
The idea of post-neoliberalism arose during the
pink tide of the 1990s and 2000s, in which left-wing Latin American critics of neoliberalism like Hugo Chávez and
Evo Morales were thrust into power. According to researchers, the election of Chávez as the president of
Venezuela in 1999 marked a definite start to the pink tide and post-neoliberal movement.
Following his election,
Rafael Correa, Néstor Kirchner,
Evo Morales, and numerous other leaders associated with the post-neoliberal movement were elected in Latin America during the 2000s and 2010s.
Into the 2020s, the Chilean president-elect
Gabriel Boric, who emerged victorious in the 2021 Chilean general election, pledged to end the country's neoliberal economic model, stating: "If Chile was the cradle of neoliberalism, it will also be its grave."
While the ideas of post-neoliberalism are not exclusive to Latin America, they are largely associated with the region.
Ideology
Post-neoliberalism seeks to fundamentally change the role of the state in countries where the Washington Consensus once prevailed.
To achieve this, post-neoliberal leaders in Latin America have advocated for the
nationalization of several industries, notably the gas, mining, and oil industries.
Post-neoliberalism also advocates for the expansion of
welfare spending benefits, greater governmental investment in poverty reduction, and increased state intervention in the economy.
Latin American application
Regional integration
The model of socialism of the 21st century encourages economic and political integration among nations in Latin America and the Caribbean. This is often accompanied with opposition to North American influence. Regional organizations like
ALBA and
CELAC promote cooperation with Latin America and exclude North American countries. ALBA is most explicitly related to socialism of the 21st century while other organizations focus on economic integration, ALBA promotes social, political and economic integration among countries that subscribe to democratic socialism. Its creation was announced in direct opposition to George W. Bush's attempts to establish a Free Trade Area of the Americas that included the United States. In 2008, ALBA introduced a monetary union using the
SUCRE as its regional currency.
Bolivarian process
Former Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez initiated a process of social reforms in Venezuela known as the Bolivarian Revolution. This approach was more heavily influenced by the theories of István Mészáros, Michael Lebowitz and
Marta Harnecker (who was Chávez's adviser between 2004 and 2011) than by those of Heinz Dieterich. The process draws its name from Latin American liberator Simón Bolívar and is a contemporary example of
Bolivarianism.
Buen vivir
Often translated to good living or living well, the concept of buen vivir is related to the movement for indigenous rights and rights of nature. It focuses on the living sustainably as the member of a community that includes both human beings and Nature.
Buen vivir is enshrined in 2008 Constitution of Ecuador as an alternative to
neoliberal development. The constitution outlines a set of rights, one of which is the rights of nature.
[Eduardo Gudynas. 2011. Buen Vivir: Today's Tomorrow Development 54(4):441-447.] In line with the assertion of these rights, buen vivir seeks to change the relationship between nature and humans to a more bio-pluralistic view, eliminating the separation between nature and society.
[SENPLADES. 2009 National Plan for Good Living. Electronic document. Retrieved May 2012.] This approach has been applied to the Yasuní-ITT Initiative.
Buen vivir is sometimes conceptualised as collaborative consumption in a
sharing economy and the term is used to look at the world in way sharply differentiated from
Natural capital,
Social capital or
human capital.
Criticism
Authoritarianism
Critics claim that socialism of the 21st century in Latin America acts as a façade for
authoritarianism. The charisma of figures like Hugo Chávez and mottoes like "Country, Socialism, or Death!" have drawn comparisons to the Latin American dictators and
of the past.
According to
Steven Levitsky of Harvard University: "Only under the dictatorships of the past ... were presidents reelected for life", with Levitsky further stating that while Latin America experienced democracy, citizens opposed "indefinite reelection, because of the dictatorships of the past".
Levitsky then noted: "In Nicaragua, Venezuela and Ecuador, reelection is associated with the same problems of 100 years ago".
[ The Washington Post also stated in 2014 that "Bolivia's Evo Morales, Daniel Ortega of Nicaragua and the late Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez ... used the ballot box to weaken or eliminate term limits".]
In 2015, The Economist stated that the Bolivarian Revolution in Venezuela—now under Nicolás Maduro after Chávez's death in 2013—was devolving from authoritarianism to dictatorship as opposition politicians were jailed for plotting to undermine the government, violence was widespread and opposition media shut down.[ "Oliver Stone Interview: There's a Specter Haunting Latin America, the Specter of 21st Century Socialism".]
Economics
The sustainability and stability of economic reforms associated with governments adhering to socialism of the 21st century have been questioned. Latin American countries have primarily financed their social programs with extractive exports like petroleum, natural gas and minerals, creating a dependency that some economists claim has caused inflation and slowed growth.
In 2015, Venezuela's economy was performing poorly—the currency had collapsed, it had the world's highest inflation rate and its gross domestic product shrank into an economic collapse in 2016.
Populism
Although democratic socialist intellectuals have welcomed a socialism of the 21st century, they have been skeptical of Latin America's examples. While citing their progressive role, they argue that the appropriate label for these governments is populist rather than socialist.
List of anti-neoliberal or post-neoliberal political parties
South America:
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Argentina: Union for the Homeland, Frente de Todos,
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Bolivia: Movement for Socialism
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Chile: Social Convergence
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Ecuador: Citizen Revolution Movement, PAIS Alliance under Rafael Correa
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Venezuela: Fifth Republic Movement, Great Patriotic Pole, United Socialist Party of Venezuela, under Hugo Chávez,
North America:
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Canada: Québec Solidaire, Green Party of Quebec
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Mexico: Morena
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United States: Democratic Socialists of America, Party for Socialism and Liberation
Asia
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Japan: Social Democratic Party
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South Korea: Progressive Party
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Turkey: Communist Party of Turkey,
[http://www.columbia.edu/~lnp3/turkey.pdf, pg. 176] Patriotic Party, Labour and Freedom Alliance
Europe
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France: New Anticapitalist Party
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Iceland: Socialist Party of Iceland
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Ireland: Independents 4 Change
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Italy: Power to the People
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Norway: Red Party
Oceania
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Australia: Australian Greens
See also
Further reading
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Báez, Michelle and David Cortez. "Buen Vivir, Sumak Kawsay" (2012). University Bielefeld – Center for InterAmerican Studies.
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http://links.org.au/node/1600
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Anil Rajimwale, M. Vijaya Kumar. Socialism in the 21st Century
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External links
